Assessment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) Contamination in Surface Soil along Tehran-Semnan Road, Iran

Document Type : Research Article

Authors

1 Faculty of Civil Engineering, K.N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

2 School of Engineering, University of British Columbia, Okanagan, British Columbia, Canada

3 Department of Civil Engineering, Pardis Branch, Islamic Azad University, Pardis, Iran

Abstract

ABSTRACT: The objective of the current research is carrying out the evaluation of the distribution,source, and environmental health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) compounds in soil samples taken from the vicinity of Tehran-Semnan road, Iran. This road is a densely populated one in central northern part of Iran with a heavy load of vehicular traffics and several industrial complexes. Four different sampling sites (S1 to S4) were selected in the studied area and then a concentration of 16 PAHs compounds in taken soil samples were measured by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). Total PAHs concentrations varied significantly from 148.4 ng g-1 to 721 ng g-1. The Siman-e Tehran (S1) site has the highest average total PAHs concentrations (654.55 ng g-1) and Dehenamak (S4) has the lowest average total PAHs concentrations (168.7 ng g-1) among the studied sites. The obtained total PAH concentrations in the studied soil samples are relatively lower than those reported in the literature for similar areas. The diagnostic ratios of fluoranthene to pyrene (Flu/Pyr) and phenanthrene to anthracene (Phe/Ant) were used to determine the petrogenic and pyrogenic sources of PAHs, respectively. The derived results indicated that PAHs contamination in the majority of studied soil samples was caused by both petrogenic and pyrogenic process.

Highlights

[1] M. Nadal, M. Schuhmacher, J. Domingo, Levels of PAHs in soil and vegetation samples from Tarragona County, Spain, Environmental Pollution, 132(1) (2004) 1-11.

[2] J. Dai, S. Li, Y. Zhang, R. Wang, Y. Yu, Distributions, sources and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in topsoil at Ji’nan city, China, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 147(1) (2008) 317-326.

[3] J.-H. Sun, G.-L. Wang, Y. Chai, G. Zhang, J. Li, J. Feng, Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Henan reach of the Yellow River, Middle China, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72(5) (2009) 1614-1624.

[4] K. Brindha, L. Elango, PAHs contamination in groundwater from a part of metropolitan city, India: a study based on sampling over a 10-year period, Environmental earth sciences, 71(12) (2014) 5113-5120.

[5] H. Yu, Environmental carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: photochemistry and phototoxicity, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 20(2) (2002) 149-183.

[6] M. Raza, M.P. Zakaria, N.R. Hashim, U.H. Yim, N. Kannan, S.Y. Ha, Composition and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mangrove sediments of Peninsular Malaysia: indication of anthropogenic input, Environmental earth sciences, 70(6) (2013) 2425-2436.

[7] N.-j. Hu, P. Huang, J.-h. Liu, D.-y. Ma, X.-f. Shi, J. Mao, Y. Liu, Characterization and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments in the Yellow River Estuary, China, Environmental earth sciences, 71(2) (2014) 873-883.

[8] E.-J. Kim, J.-E. Oh, Y.-S. Chang, Effects of forest fire on the level and distribution of PCDD/Fs and PAHs in soil, Science of the Total Environment, 311(1) (2003) 177-189.

[9] X. Feng, W. Pisula, K. Müllen, Large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: synthesis and discotic organization, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 81(12) (2009) 2203-2224.

[10] X.S. Wang, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particle-size fractions of urban topsoils, Environmental earth sciences, 70(6) (2013) 2855-2864.

[11] G.P. Johnston, D. Lineman, C.G. Johnston, L. Leff, Characterization, sources and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in long-term contaminated riverbank sediments, Environmental Earth Sciences, 74(4) (2015) 3519-3529.

[12] L. Tang, X.-Y. Tang, Y.-G. Zhu, M.-H. Zheng, Q.- L. Miao, Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban soils in Beijing, China, Environment international, 31(6) (2005) 822-828.

[13] J.C. Means, S.G. Wood, J.J. Hassett, W.L. Banwart, Sorption of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons by sediments and soils, Environmental Science & Technology, 14(12) (1980) 1524-1528.

[14] T.T. Dong, B.-K. Lee, Characteristics, toxicity, and source apportionment of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in road dust of Ulsan, Korea, Chemosphere, 74(9) (2009) 1245-1253.

[15] R. Mirza, M. Mohammadi, I. Faghiri, E. Abedi, A. Fakhri, A. Azimi, M.A. Zahed, Source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediment samples from the northern part of the Persian Gulf, Iran, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 186(11) (2014) 7387-7398.

[16] L. Maltby, D.M. Forrow, A. Boxall, P. Calow, C.I. Betton, The effects of motorway runoff on freshwater ecosystems: 1. Field study, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 14(6) (1995) 1079-1092.

[17] L. Maltby, A. Boxall, D.M. Forrow, P. Calow, C.I. Betton, The effects of motorway runoff on freshwater ecosystems: 2. Identifying major toxicants, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 14(6) (1995) 1093-1101.

[18] B. Mai, S. Qi, E.Y. Zeng, Q. Yang, G. Zhang, J. Fu, G. Sheng, P. Peng, Z. Wang, Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the coastal region off Macao, China: assessment of input sources and transport pathways using compositional analysis, Environmental Science & Technology, 37(21) (2003) 4855-4863.

[19] B. Shi, Q. Wu, H. Ouyang, X. Liu, J. Zhang, W. Zuo, Distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the surface soil of Baise, China, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 187(5) (2015) 232.

[20] B. Yu, X. Xie, L.Q. Ma, H. Kan, Q. Zhou, Source, distribution, and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban street dust from Tianjin, China, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(4) (2014) 2817-2825.

[21] S.R. Wild, K.C. Jones, Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the United Kingdom environment: a preliminary source inventory and budget, Environmental pollution, 88(1) (1995) 91-108.

[22] D.K. Essumang, K. Kowalski, E. Sogaard, Levels, distribution and source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in topsoils and roadside soils in Esbjerg, Denmark, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology, 86(4) (2011) 438-443.

[23] M. Arienzo, S. Albanese, A. Lima, C. Cannatelli, F. Aliberti, F. Cicotti, S. Qi, B. De Vivo, Assessment of the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorine pesticides in soils from the Sarno River basin, Italy, and ecotoxicological survey by Daphnia magna, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 187(2) (2015) 52.

[24] I. Hussain, J.H. Syed, A. Kamal, M. Iqbal, C.W. Bong, M.M. Taqi, T.G. Reichenauer, G. Zhang, R.N. Malik, The relative abundance and seasonal distribution correspond with the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surface sediments of Chenab River, Pakistan, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 188(6) (2016) 378.

[25] B. Maliszewska-Kordybach, B. Smreczak, A. Klimkowicz-Pawlas, H. Terelak, Monitoring of the total content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in arable soils in Poland, Chemosphere, 73(8) (2008) 1284- 1291.

[26] S. Samimi, R.A. Rad, F. Ghanizadeh, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination levels in collected samples from vicinity of a highway, Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering, 6(1) (2009) 47-52.

[27] ASTM, Standard test method for Moisture, ash, and organic matter of peat and other organic soils, in, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken, Pa, USA., 2007.

[28] ATSDR, Toxicology profile for Polyaromatic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), in, United State Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta, GA, USA., 2005.

[29] J. Tuhácková, T. Cajthaml, K. Novak, K. Novotný, J. Mertelik, V. Šašek, Hydrocarbon deposition and soil microflora as affected by highway traffic, Environmental Pollution, 113(3) (2001) 255-262.

[30] C. Crépineau, G. Rychen, C. Feidt, Y. Le Roux, E. Lichtfouse, F. Laurent, Contamination of pastures by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the vicinity of a highway, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 51(16) (2003) 4841-4845.

[31] P. Tremolada, V. Burnett, D. Calamari, K.C. Jones, Spatial distribution of PAHs in the UK atmosphere using pine needles, Environmental Science & Technology, 30(12) (1996) 3570-3577.

[32] D.M. Wagrowski, R.A. Hites, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon accumulation in urban, suburban, and rural vegetation, Environmental Science & Technology, 31(1) (1996) 279-282.

[33] M. Trapido, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Estonian soil: contamination and profiles, Environmental pollution, 105(1) (1999) 67-74.

[34] M. Chen, P. Huang, L. Chen, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils from Urumqi, China: distribution, source contributions, and potential health risks, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 185(7) (2013) 5639-5651.

[35] T. Nganje, A. Edet, S. Ekwere, Distribution of PAHs in surface soils from petroleum handling facilities in Calabar, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 130(1-3) (2007) 27.

[36] X.F. Cao, M. Liu, Y.F. Song, M.L. Ackland, Composition, sources, and potential toxicology of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in agricultural soils in Liaoning, People’s Republic of China, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 185(3) (2013) 2231-2241.

[37] C. Peng, M. Wang, Y. Zhao, W. Chen, Distribution and risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in suburban and rural soils of Beijing with various land uses, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 188(3) (2016) 162.

[38] N. Loick, P.J. Hobbs, M.D. Hale, D.L. Jones, Bioremediation of poly-aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)- contaminated soil by composting, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 39(4) (2009) 271-332.

[39] A. Mizwar, B.J. Priatmadi, C. Abdi, Y. Trihadiningrum, Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination in surface soil of coal stockpile sites in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 188(3) (2016) 152.

[40] A. Meharg, J. Wright, H. Dyke, D. Osborn, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) dispersion and deposition to vegetation and soil following a large scale chemical fire, Environmental pollution, 99(1) (1998) 29-36.

[41] W. Wang, 98102488 Photochemical degradation of PAHs on smoke particles in atmosphere, in: Fuel and Energy Abstracts, 1998, pp. 223.

[42] K.S. Park, R.C. Sims, R.R. Dupont, W.J. Doucette, J.E. Matthews, Fate of PAH compounds in two soil types: influence of volatilization, abiotic loss and biological activity, Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 9(2) (1990) 187-195.

[43] I.T. Cousins, K.C. Jones, Air-soil exchange of semi-volatile organic compounds (SOCs) in the UK, Environmental Pollution, 102(1) (1998) 105-118.

[44] B. Maliszewska-Kordybach, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in agricultural soils in Poland: preliminary proposals for criteria to evaluate the level of soil contamination, Applied Geochemistry, 11(1-2) (1996) 121-127.

[45] S. Paterson, D. Mackay, A model illustrating the environmental fate, exposure and human uptake of persistent organic chemicals, Ecological Modelling, 47(1-2) (1989) 85-114.

[46] C. Council, A Protocol for the Derivation of Environmental and Human Health Soil Quality Guidelines, (2006).

[47] BCME, Overview of CSSt procedures for the derivation of soil quality matrix standards for contaminated sites., Victoria, BC, Canada, 1996.

[48] OMEE, Guideline for use at contaminated sites in Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1996.

[49] R.E. Hester, R.M. Harrison, Air pollution and health, Royal Society of chemistry, 1998.

[50] I.C. Nisbet, P.K. LaGoy, Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, 16(3) (1992) 290-300.

[51] M.B. Yunker, R.W. Macdonald, D. Goyette, D.W. Paton, B.R. Fowler, D. Sullivan, J. Boyd, Natural and anthropogenic inputs of hydrocarbons to the Strait of Georgia, Science of the Total Environment, 225(3) (1999) 181-209.

[52] M.B. Yunker, L.R. Snowdon, R.W. Macdonald, J.N. Smith, M.G. Fowler, D.N. Skibo, F.A. McLaughlin, A. Danyushevskaya, V. Petrova, G. Ivanov, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composition and potential sources for sediment samples from the Beaufort and Barents Seas, Environmental Science & Technology, 30(4) (1996) 1310-1320.

[53] R. Dickhut, E. Canuel, K. Gustafson, K. Liu, K. Arzayus, S. Walker, G. Edgecombe, M. Gaylor, E. MacDonald, Automotive sources of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with particulate matter in the Chesapeake Bay region, Environmental Science & Technology, 34(21) (2000) 4635-4640.

[54] M. Sanders, S. Sivertsen, G. Scott, Origin and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surficial sediments from the Savannah River, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 43(4) (2002) 0438-0448.

[55] R.A. Alberty, A.K. Reif, Standard chemical thermodynamic properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their isomer groups I. Benzene series, Journal of physical and chemical reference data, 17(1) (1988) 241-253.

[56] P. Baumard, H. Budzinski, Q. Michon, P. Garrigues, T. Burgeot, J. Bellocq, Origin and bioavailability of PAHs in the Mediterranean Sea from mussel and sediment records, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 47(1) (1998) 77-90.

[57] N. Tam, L. Ke, X. Wang, Y. Wong, Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove swamps, Environmental Pollution, 114(2) (2001) 255-263.

[58] H. Soclo, P. Garrigues, M. Ewald, Origin of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coastal marine sediments: case studies in Cotonou (Benin) and Aquitaine (France) areas, Marine pollution bulletin, 40(5) (2000) 387-396.

[59] H. Budzinski, I. Jones, J. Bellocq, C. Pierard, P. Garrigues, Evaluation of sediment contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Gironde estuary, Marine chemistry, 58(1-2) (1997) 85-97.

Keywords

References

[1] M. Nadal, M. Schuhmacher, J. Domingo, Levels of PAHs in soil and vegetation samples from Tarragona County, Spain, Environmental Pollution, 132(1) (2004) 1-11.
[2] J. Dai, S. Li, Y. Zhang, R. Wang, Y. Yu, Distributions, sources and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in topsoil at Ji’nan city, China, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 147(1) (2008) 317-326.
[3] J.-H. Sun, G.-L. Wang, Y. Chai, G. Zhang, J. Li, J. Feng, Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Henan reach of the Yellow River, Middle China, Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72(5) (2009) 1614-1624.
[4] K. Brindha, L. Elango, PAHs contamination in groundwater from a part of metropolitan city, India: a study based on sampling over a 10-year period, Environmental earth sciences, 71(12) (2014) 5113-5120.
[5] H. Yu, Environmental carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: photochemistry and phototoxicity, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 20(2) (2002) 149-183.
[6] M. Raza, M.P. Zakaria, N.R. Hashim, U.H. Yim, N. Kannan, S.Y. Ha, Composition and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mangrove sediments of Peninsular Malaysia: indication of anthropogenic input, Environmental earth sciences, 70(6) (2013) 2425-2436.
[7] N.-j. Hu, P. Huang, J.-h. Liu, D.-y. Ma, X.-f. Shi, J. Mao, Y. Liu, Characterization and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediments in the Yellow River Estuary, China, Environmental earth sciences, 71(2) (2014) 873-883.
[8] E.-J. Kim, J.-E. Oh, Y.-S. Chang, Effects of forest fire on the level and distribution of PCDD/Fs and PAHs in soil, Science of the Total Environment, 311(1) (2003) 177-189.
[9] X. Feng, W. Pisula, K. Müllen, Large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: synthesis and discotic organization, Pure and Applied Chemistry, 81(12) (2009) 2203-2224.
[10] X.S. Wang, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in particle-size fractions of urban topsoils, Environmental earth sciences, 70(6) (2013) 2855-2864.
[11] G.P. Johnston, D. Lineman, C.G. Johnston, L. Leff, Characterization, sources and ecological risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in long-term contaminated riverbank sediments, Environmental Earth Sciences, 74(4) (2015) 3519-3529.
[12] L. Tang, X.-Y. Tang, Y.-G. Zhu, M.-H. Zheng, Q.- L. Miao, Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban soils in Beijing, China, Environment international, 31(6) (2005) 822-828.
[13] J.C. Means, S.G. Wood, J.J. Hassett, W.L. Banwart, Sorption of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons by sediments and soils, Environmental Science & Technology, 14(12) (1980) 1524-1528.
[14] T.T. Dong, B.-K. Lee, Characteristics, toxicity, and source apportionment of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in road dust of Ulsan, Korea, Chemosphere, 74(9) (2009) 1245-1253.
[15] R. Mirza, M. Mohammadi, I. Faghiri, E. Abedi, A. Fakhri, A. Azimi, M.A. Zahed, Source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in sediment samples from the northern part of the Persian Gulf, Iran, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 186(11) (2014) 7387-7398.
[16] L. Maltby, D.M. Forrow, A. Boxall, P. Calow, C.I. Betton, The effects of motorway runoff on freshwater ecosystems: 1. Field study, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 14(6) (1995) 1079-1092.
[17] L. Maltby, A. Boxall, D.M. Forrow, P. Calow, C.I. Betton, The effects of motorway runoff on freshwater ecosystems: 2. Identifying major toxicants, Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 14(6) (1995) 1093-1101.
[18] B. Mai, S. Qi, E.Y. Zeng, Q. Yang, G. Zhang, J. Fu, G. Sheng, P. Peng, Z. Wang, Distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the coastal region off Macao, China: assessment of input sources and transport pathways using compositional analysis, Environmental Science & Technology, 37(21) (2003) 4855-4863.
[19] B. Shi, Q. Wu, H. Ouyang, X. Liu, J. Zhang, W. Zuo, Distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the surface soil of Baise, China, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 187(5) (2015) 232.
[20] B. Yu, X. Xie, L.Q. Ma, H. Kan, Q. Zhou, Source, distribution, and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban street dust from Tianjin, China, Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(4) (2014) 2817-2825.
[21] S.R. Wild, K.C. Jones, Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons in the United Kingdom environment: a preliminary source inventory and budget, Environmental pollution, 88(1) (1995) 91-108.
[22] D.K. Essumang, K. Kowalski, E. Sogaard, Levels, distribution and source characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in topsoils and roadside soils in Esbjerg, Denmark, Bulletin of environmental contamination and toxicology, 86(4) (2011) 438-443.
[23] M. Arienzo, S. Albanese, A. Lima, C. Cannatelli, F. Aliberti, F. Cicotti, S. Qi, B. De Vivo, Assessment of the concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and organochlorine pesticides in soils from the Sarno River basin, Italy, and ecotoxicological survey by Daphnia magna, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 187(2) (2015) 52.
[24] I. Hussain, J.H. Syed, A. Kamal, M. Iqbal, C.W. Bong, M.M. Taqi, T.G. Reichenauer, G. Zhang, R.N. Malik, The relative abundance and seasonal distribution correspond with the sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the surface sediments of Chenab River, Pakistan, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 188(6) (2016) 378.
[25] B. Maliszewska-Kordybach, B. Smreczak, A. Klimkowicz-Pawlas, H. Terelak, Monitoring of the total content of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in arable soils in Poland, Chemosphere, 73(8) (2008) 1284- 1291.
[26] S. Samimi, R.A. Rad, F. Ghanizadeh, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon contamination levels in collected samples from vicinity of a highway, Journal of Environmental Health Science & Engineering, 6(1) (2009) 47-52.
[27] ASTM, Standard test method for Moisture, ash, and organic matter of peat and other organic soils, in, American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), West Conshohocken, Pa, USA., 2007.
[28] ATSDR, Toxicology profile for Polyaromatic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), in, United State Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Atlanta, GA, USA., 2005.
[29] J. Tuhácková, T. Cajthaml, K. Novak, K. Novotný, J. Mertelik, V. Šašek, Hydrocarbon deposition and soil microflora as affected by highway traffic, Environmental Pollution, 113(3) (2001) 255-262.
[30] C. Crépineau, G. Rychen, C. Feidt, Y. Le Roux, E. Lichtfouse, F. Laurent, Contamination of pastures by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the vicinity of a highway, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 51(16) (2003) 4841-4845.
[31] P. Tremolada, V. Burnett, D. Calamari, K.C. Jones, Spatial distribution of PAHs in the UK atmosphere using pine needles, Environmental Science & Technology, 30(12) (1996) 3570-3577.
[32] D.M. Wagrowski, R.A. Hites, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon accumulation in urban, suburban, and rural vegetation, Environmental Science & Technology, 31(1) (1996) 279-282.
[33] M. Trapido, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Estonian soil: contamination and profiles, Environmental pollution, 105(1) (1999) 67-74.
[34] M. Chen, P. Huang, L. Chen, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils from Urumqi, China: distribution, source contributions, and potential health risks, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 185(7) (2013) 5639-5651.
[35] T. Nganje, A. Edet, S. Ekwere, Distribution of PAHs in surface soils from petroleum handling facilities in Calabar, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 130(1-3) (2007) 27.
[36] X.F. Cao, M. Liu, Y.F. Song, M.L. Ackland, Composition, sources, and potential toxicology of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in agricultural soils in Liaoning, People’s Republic of China, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 185(3) (2013) 2231-2241.
[37] C. Peng, M. Wang, Y. Zhao, W. Chen, Distribution and risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in suburban and rural soils of Beijing with various land uses, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 188(3) (2016) 162.
[38] N. Loick, P.J. Hobbs, M.D. Hale, D.L. Jones, Bioremediation of poly-aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)- contaminated soil by composting, Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 39(4) (2009) 271-332.
[39] A. Mizwar, B.J. Priatmadi, C. Abdi, Y. Trihadiningrum, Assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) contamination in surface soil of coal stockpile sites in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, Environmental monitoring and assessment, 188(3) (2016) 152.
[40] A. Meharg, J. Wright, H. Dyke, D. Osborn, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) dispersion and deposition to vegetation and soil following a large scale chemical fire, Environmental pollution, 99(1) (1998) 29-36.
[41] W. Wang, 98102488 Photochemical degradation of PAHs on smoke particles in atmosphere, in: Fuel and Energy Abstracts, 1998, pp. 223.
[42] K.S. Park, R.C. Sims, R.R. Dupont, W.J. Doucette, J.E. Matthews, Fate of PAH compounds in two soil types: influence of volatilization, abiotic loss and biological activity, Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 9(2) (1990) 187-195.
[43] I.T. Cousins, K.C. Jones, Air-soil exchange of semi-volatile organic compounds (SOCs) in the UK, Environmental Pollution, 102(1) (1998) 105-118.
[44] B. Maliszewska-Kordybach, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in agricultural soils in Poland: preliminary proposals for criteria to evaluate the level of soil contamination, Applied Geochemistry, 11(1-2) (1996) 121-127.
[45] S. Paterson, D. Mackay, A model illustrating the environmental fate, exposure and human uptake of persistent organic chemicals, Ecological Modelling, 47(1-2) (1989) 85-114.
[46] C. Council, A Protocol for the Derivation of Environmental and Human Health Soil Quality Guidelines, (2006).
[47] BCME, Overview of CSSt procedures for the derivation of soil quality matrix standards for contaminated sites., Victoria, BC, Canada, 1996.
[48] OMEE, Guideline for use at contaminated sites in Ontario, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1996.
[49] R.E. Hester, R.M. Harrison, Air pollution and health, Royal Society of chemistry, 1998.
[50] I.C. Nisbet, P.K. LaGoy, Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, 16(3) (1992) 290-300.
[51] M.B. Yunker, R.W. Macdonald, D. Goyette, D.W. Paton, B.R. Fowler, D. Sullivan, J. Boyd, Natural and anthropogenic inputs of hydrocarbons to the Strait of Georgia, Science of the Total Environment, 225(3) (1999) 181-209.
[52] M.B. Yunker, L.R. Snowdon, R.W. Macdonald, J.N. Smith, M.G. Fowler, D.N. Skibo, F.A. McLaughlin, A. Danyushevskaya, V. Petrova, G. Ivanov, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon composition and potential sources for sediment samples from the Beaufort and Barents Seas, Environmental Science & Technology, 30(4) (1996) 1310-1320.
[53] R. Dickhut, E. Canuel, K. Gustafson, K. Liu, K. Arzayus, S. Walker, G. Edgecombe, M. Gaylor, E. MacDonald, Automotive sources of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with particulate matter in the Chesapeake Bay region, Environmental Science & Technology, 34(21) (2000) 4635-4640.
[54] M. Sanders, S. Sivertsen, G. Scott, Origin and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surficial sediments from the Savannah River, Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 43(4) (2002) 0438-0448.
[55] R.A. Alberty, A.K. Reif, Standard chemical thermodynamic properties of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their isomer groups I. Benzene series, Journal of physical and chemical reference data, 17(1) (1988) 241-253.
[56] P. Baumard, H. Budzinski, Q. Michon, P. Garrigues, T. Burgeot, J. Bellocq, Origin and bioavailability of PAHs in the Mediterranean Sea from mussel and sediment records, Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 47(1) (1998) 77-90.
[57] N. Tam, L. Ke, X. Wang, Y. Wong, Contamination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface sediments of mangrove swamps, Environmental Pollution, 114(2) (2001) 255-263.
[58] H. Soclo, P. Garrigues, M. Ewald, Origin of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coastal marine sediments: case studies in Cotonou (Benin) and Aquitaine (France) areas, Marine pollution bulletin, 40(5) (2000) 387-396.
[59] H. Budzinski, I. Jones, J. Bellocq, C. Pierard, P. Garrigues, Evaluation of sediment contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Gironde estuary, Marine chemistry, 58(1-2) (1997) 85-97.
AUT Journal of Civil Engineering
Volume 1, Issue 1
May 2017
Pages 77-86

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